- 简体中文
- 繁体中文
- English
The Distinctiveness of People Management in the Public Sector an
Introduction
The public sector is a critical part of an economy's political, social, and economic prosperity. Agencies that the state funds provide public goods and services to the citizens, and these two are essential to the overall nation's prosperity (Arora and Chong, 2018: 175). As such, public goods such as education, healthcare, and security are provided by public entities, and understanding how the human resources function in these institutions differs from that of the private sector is critical. The centralized way that the public sector operates distinguishes its people management function from that of private firms. According to Bach (2019: 558), it is through the distinctive institutional arrangements and values of the public service that make the study of people management separate from that of the private sector. It is the way the services are delivered in the public service, their magnitude towards the general public, and the interactions between the different sections that distinguish public service HRM from private firms HRM. Accordingly, this is influenced by impactful factors such as face-to-face service delivery (Johnson, 2020: 9). This makes it critical to distinguish the practice of public service HRM from that of the private sector. Thus, this essay will critically analyze how the practice of HRM in the public sector differs from that of the private sector, and what challenges this brings to the practice.
Nature of Public Sector Labor and the Role of HRM in Delivering Public Service
Public sector performance is dependent on the output of the employees (Aghaz et al., 2017: 668). To understand the formation of the HRM function in the public sector, it is crucial to first define what the public sector is and analyze the nature of the work done by employees. Johnson (2020: 9) defines the public sector as any entity that has its operations publicly funded, owned, and controlled by laws and directives. As such, the public sector is detailed as the section of the economy managed and funded by the state through specific agencies and with the mandate to provide public goods and services to citizens. There is a consistent argument that the public sector formation, including the HRM function, differs from the private sector formation (Do Monte, 2017: 229). Mostly, the services provided by public sector employees are face to face in nature, with calls for intensity in labour utilization. Bach (2019: 558) postulates that the state employs people due to a variety of reasons, among them the increase in scope and size of state agency activities. Additionally, the author shows that the increased demand for public services due to the ageing population, technological disruptions, political shifts, and economic realities, among other factors, has made public sector employees the largest in the global labour force.
Accordingly, the labour may come in the form of service provision in learning institutions, security services, healthcare provision, public transport management, and public amenities (Caponi, 2017: 1). They also provide policing services, public utility services, welfare services, administrative services, and infrastructural development and maintenance. To achieve efficiency in delivering this service, one cannot overlook the formation of human capital management, and how it contributes to the development of a competent workforce.
Looked from another lens, the public sector employees have the responsibility to the general public, and their actions and decisions have an impactful effect on the general living standards of the population (Do Monte, 2017: 231). Also, with services such as healthcare and security, the wellbeing and safety of the general population are in the hands of the public servants, and this increases the reason and interest in understanding the distinctive nature of public sector human capital management.
The HRM is a key function that helps in delivering the service to the public effectively and economically. According to Brunetto and Beattie (2020: 1), the role of public HRM has significantly changed during the last two decades. This is because of the discretionary power gained from the skills and expert knowledge of HRM professionals in the public sector, creating a more diverse workplace. The result is a shift in the role played by HRM in the public sector (Brunetto and Beattie, 2020: 1). Public sector HRM focuses on developing the capacity, through people management, to achieve superior performance in line with public sector entities’ strategic direction.
This approach has been facilitated by a shift from hard HRM to soft HRM. According to Gile et al. (2018: 2), soft HRM is an employee-centred managerial approach where the focus is on the working environment, where training, development, tasks alignment, roles, motivation, communication, and delegation are all done with the employees' well-being in mind. As such, the focus is on the employees as the most important assets in the public sector. On the other hand, hard HRM is an approach that sees the employees as a category in the resources of organizations, and the focus is on ensuring their optimum capitalization (Gile et al., 2018: 2), The depersonalization of people management leads to the treatment of employees as any other asset.
3.0 Characteristics of Human Resources Management in Public Sector as Compared to Private Sector
It is important to consider the characteristics of HRM in the public sector for a critical evaluation against the private sector and the identification of the distinct elements. One trait of people management in the public sector is the none performance-related pay mechanism. Johnson (2020: 11) argues that the public service sector, led by state organs, does not tie compensation to performance. The author argues that public sector pay in the lower levels is low, but increases with the higher an executive climb in the public offices. This variation is contributed to the job grades besides the belief that the public sector employees' motivation is not driven by financial compensation, but is driven by the ability to service and contribute to the service to the nation (Johnson, 2020: 11).
People management is important in the public sector to foster the development of a work culture that not only benefits the organization but also the employees. Yet, Kotková Stříteská and Sein (2021: 1) argue that due to fear of change, HR in the public sector is characterized by inefficiencies and ineffectiveness. A result of such an approach is the quest to change the management and leadership style (Meriˇcková Mikušová et al., 2020: 1). Holistic development of the organization is important for people management to be effective. Through effective people management, an involuntary effort is made to maintain the development of the organization as a whole. Organizational development will necessitate research on specific areas that need to be improved and corrected.
Bullock, Stritch, as Rainey (2015: 480) contrast this view, believing that the overall pay in the public sector is low as compared to the private sector. Private sector employees have running incentives to motivate them to perform while the public sector has heavily relied on service salary scales, where pay is per the service level (Knies, 2017: 1). However, this is not to say that some public sector agencies are not adopting a performance-based compensation mechanism. As evidence provided by the Gov.UK (2020) shows, there are state agencies that provide their employees with varying performance-based pay in each financial year. This is not a global practice, and its assimilation is yet to be seen on a large scale. Park (2021: 1) adds that most of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries have implemented performance pay, though due to its ineffectiveness, it is rarely used as a way to compensate employees. This makes the public sector pay design distinct as compared to the private sector.
The second characteristic of public sector people management is a high level of unionization in state agencies. Unionization is the element of employees working in the same sector coming under a leadership group that negotiates with the government on their behalf for better working conditions, including collective bargaining agreements on compensation, working conditions, and other benefits (Paglayan, 2019: 22). To this end, given that different sector public employees cannot individually bargain on their terms with the government, the unions represent them. Such include teachers, medics, firefighters’ unions, postal service employee unions, and state employees’ unions.
More importantly, the contract negotiations of the public sector in nations globally depend on the budget size in each fiscal year (Paglayan, 2019: 21). Moreover, the unions engage in lengthy negotiations on behalf of the public servants to achieve better contracts for their members, besides assurance of job security, health, and safety at the workplace, among other critical element. According to the Department for Business, Innovation, and Skills (2020: 1), the UK reported 3.77 million union density in the public sector as compared to 2.67 million achieved in the private sector. This is a testament that the density of unions in the public sector is high, and there is a strong attachment to collective bargaining agreements. Elsewhere globally, statistics also show high unionization, with the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021) showing that the U.S. has a 34.8% unionization of its public sector employees as compared to 6.3% private sector. This proves that public sector agencies accept their employees to join unions, while employees seek services from unions to fight for better conditions
5.0 Conclusion
This discussion has critically analyzed the distinctiveness of the practice of HRM in the public sector, and what challenges this brings to the practice. As the analysis has shown, given the nature of public sector services, face to face human capital is a critical element in delivering such services. The public sector employees have the responsibility to the public, where their actions and decisions impact the general living standards of the population. As opposed to the private sector, public HRM is characterized by the hand of the state on approach to employee relations management, unionization, an ageing workforce that guarantees stability, NPM framework adoption and other policies, deprivation of state agencies in HRM discretion, and a value-based approach to HRM. Another critical characteristic is the encouragement of managers into becoming outstanding leaders, which is coupled by not tying compensation to performance.
Yet, challenges face the practice of public sector people management. These challenges include the severity in cost optimization that affects jobs, demographic shifts affecting demand for human capital, and complexity and increase in services to offer communities. Other challenges include policies focusing on effectiveness and efficiency, forgetting the human aspect of the roles in state organs and job-related stress and dissatisfaction can have a negative impact on the quality of service. As an HR practitioner, understanding these challenges helps in public sector people management, increasing the level of satisfaction due to the application of informed and proactive strategies. Thus, it important for policymakers and other human capital stakeholders in the public sector to consider these challenges and devise ways to mitigate or solve them.
References
Adams, J.M., 2019. The value of worker well-being. Public Health Reports, 134(6), pp.583-586.
Aghaz, A., Sheikh, A. and Amirkhani, T., 2017. Human Resource Management in the Public Sector: An Investigation into the Iranian Ministries. Iranian Journal of Management Studies, 10(3).
Arora, P. and Chong, A., 2018. Government effectiveness in the provision of public goods: the role of institutional quality. Journal of Applied Economics, 21(1), pp.175-196.
Ashraf, J., 2017. Examining the public sector recruitment and selection, in relation to job analysis in Pakistan. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), p.1309134.
Al-Sharif, R. & Searle, H. R. 2018. Recruitment and selection. In D. G. Collings, G. T. Wood, & L. T. Szamosi (Eds.), Human resource management: A critical approach (2nd ed., pp. 215-237). New York, NY: Routledge.
Alfes, K., Truss, C. and Gill, J., 2010. The HR manager as change agent: Evidence from the public sector. Journal of change management, 10(1), pp.109-127.
Bach, s., 2019. Human resource management in the public sector: New public management, responsive governance and the consequences of the economic crisis. Teoksessa: Adrian Wilkinson, Nick Bacon & S. Snell.
Bosch, A., 2015. Reasons for the gender pay gap–What HR practitioners should know. South African board for people pracfices women’s Report, pp.3-6.
Brunetto, Y. and Beattie, R., 2020. Changing role of HRM in the public sector. Public Management Review, 22(1), 1–5.
Bullock, J. B., Stritch, J. M., & Rainey, H. H. 2015. International comparison of public and private employees’ work motives, attitudes, and perceived rewards. Public Administration Review, 75(3), 479–489. doi:10.1111/puar.12356
Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2021. Union members summary. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm
Caponi, V., 2017. The effects of public sector employment on the economy. IZA World of Labor.
Ciobanu, A. and Androniceanu, A., 2018. Integrated human resources activities-the solution for performance improvement in romanian public sector institutions. Management Research & Practice, 10(3).
Colley, L., 2014. Understanding ageing public sector workforces: Demographic challenge or a consequence of public employment policy design? Public Management Review, 16(7), pp.1030-1052.
Department for Business, Innovation, and Skills. 2020. Trade union membership 2019. London: BIS.
Do Monte, P.A., 2017. Public versus private sector: Do workers behave differently? Economia, 18(2), pp.229-243.
Dupouët, O. and Barlatier, P.J., 2019. Environmental shifts and change strategies. Strategic Organization, 17(4), pp.405-424.
Elliott, I.C., 2020. Organisational learning and change in a public sector context. Teaching Public Administration, 38(3), pp.270-283.
Gile, P.P., Buljac-Samardzic, M. and Van De Klundert, J., 2018. The effect of human resource management on performance in hospitals in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review. Human Resources for Health, 16(1), pp.1-21.
Gov.UK. (2020). HMRC: Non-consolidated performance-related pay 2018 to 2019: Information on non-consolidated performance-related pay data for HMRC and its agencies. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hmrc-non-consolidated-performance-related-pay-2018-to-2019.
Johnson, D.S., 2020. Public versus private employees: A perspective on the characteristics and implications. FIIB Business Review, 9(1), pp.9-14.
Knies, E., Boselie, P., Gould-Williams, J. and Vandenabeele, W., 2017. Strategic human resource management and public sector performance: context matters.
Kotková Stříteská, M. and Sein, Y.Y., 2021. Performance Driven Culture in the Public Sector: The Case of Nordic Countries. Administrative Sciences, 11(1), p.4.
Kuoppakangas, P., Suomi, K., Stenvall, J., Pekkola, E., Kivistö, J. and Kallio, T., 2019. Revisiting the five problems of public sector organisations and reputation management—the perspective of higher education practitioners and ex-academics. International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 16(2), pp.147-171.
Lapuente, V. and Van de Walle, S., 2020. The effects of new public management on the quality of public services. Governance, 33(3), pp.461-475.
Ludviga, I., Senņikova, I. and Kalviņa, A., 2016. Turnover of public sector employees and the mediating role of job satisfaction: an empirical study in Latvia. In Society. Integration. Education. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference (Vol. 4, pp. 364-378).
Meriˇcková Mikušová, Beáta., Jana. Štrangfeldová, Nikoleta J. Muthová, and Nikola Štefanišinová. 2020. Performance Measurement in Education Public Services Based on the Value for Money Concept. Scientific Papers of the University of Pardubice, Series D: Faculty of Economics and Administration 28: 1099.
Mueller, R., 2019. The gender pay gap in the public sector: Evidence from the labour force survey. Available at SSRN 3477612.
Öberg, S.A. and Wockelberg, H., 2020. Agency control or autonomy? Government steering of Swedish government agencies 2003–2017. International Public Management Journal, pp.1-20.
OECD. 2021. The working-age population (indicator). doi: 10.1787/d339918b-en (Accessed on 15 April 2021)
Oliveira, L.B. and Costa, E.M.T.C.M.D., 2019. Comparing attitudes of public servants and outsourced employees. RAUSP Management Journal, 54(1), pp.38-53.
Paglayan, A.S., 2019. Public‐sector unions and the size of government. American Journal of Political Science, 63(1), pp.21-36.
Park, J., 2021. What makes performance-related pay effective in the public sector? Target, pay design, and context. Review of Public Personnel Administration, p.0734371X21990722.
Podger, A., 2017. Enduring challenges and new developments in public human resource management: Australia as an example of international experience. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 37(1), pp.108-128.
Sewpersad, R., Ruggunan, S., Adam, J.K. and Krishna, S.B.N., 2019. The impact of the psychological contract on academics. SAGE Open, 9(2), p.2158244019840122.
Steen, T. and Schott, C., 2019. Public sector employees in a challenging work environment. Public Administration, 97(1), pp.3-10.
Thompson, J.R., 2017. Value shifts in public sector human resource management: A congressional perspective. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 37(4), pp.375-404.
Truss, C., 2018. Continuity and change: the role of the HR function in the modern public sector. Public Administration, 86(4), pp.1071-1088.
Yang, F. and Gu, S., 2021. Industry 4.0, a revolution that requires technology and national strategies. Complex & Intelligent Systems, pp.1-15.
Veh, A., Göbel, M., & Vogel, R. 2018. Corporate reputation in management research: A review of the literature and assessment of the concept. Business Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40685-018-0080-4.
The Distinctiveness of People Management in the Public Sector an
Introduction
The public sector is a critical part of an economy's political, social, and economic prosperity. Agencies that the state funds provide public goods and services to the citizens, and these two are essential to the overall nation's prosperity (Arora and Chong, 2018: 175). As such, public goods such as education, healthcare, and security are provided by public entities, and understanding how the human resources function in these institutions differs from that of the private sector is critical. The centralized way that the public sector operates distinguishes its people management function from that of private firms. According to Bach (2019: 558), it is through the distinctive institutional arrangements and values of the public service that make the study of people management separate from that of the private sector. It is the way the services are delivered in the public service, their magnitude towards the general public, and the interactions between the different sections that distinguish public service HRM from private firms HRM. Accordingly, this is influenced by impactful factors such as face-to-face service delivery (Johnson, 2020: 9). This makes it critical to distinguish the practice of public service HRM from that of the private sector. Thus, this essay will critically analyze how the practice of HRM in the public sector differs from that of the private sector, and what challenges this brings to the practice.
Nature of Public Sector Labor and the Role of HRM in Delivering Public Service
Public sector performance is dependent on the output of the employees (Aghaz et al., 2017: 668). To understand the formation of the HRM function in the public sector, it is crucial to first define what the public sector is and analyze the nature of the work done by employees. Johnson (2020: 9) defines the public sector as any entity that has its operations publicly funded, owned, and controlled by laws and directives. As such, the public sector is detailed as the section of the economy managed and funded by the state through specific agencies and with the mandate to provide public goods and services to citizens. There is a consistent argument that the public sector formation, including the HRM function, differs from the private sector formation (Do Monte, 2017: 229). Mostly, the services provided by public sector employees are face to face in nature, with calls for intensity in labour utilization. Bach (2019: 558) postulates that the state employs people due to a variety of reasons, among them the increase in scope and size of state agency activities. Additionally, the author shows that the increased demand for public services due to the ageing population, technological disruptions, political shifts, and economic realities, among other factors, has made public sector employees the largest in the global labour force.
Accordingly, the labour may come in the form of service provision in learning institutions, security services, healthcare provision, public transport management, and public amenities (Caponi, 2017: 1). They also provide policing services, public utility services, welfare services, administrative services, and infrastructural development and maintenance. To achieve efficiency in delivering this service, one cannot overlook the formation of human capital management, and how it contributes to the development of a competent workforce.
Looked from another lens, the public sector employees have the responsibility to the general public, and their actions and decisions have an impactful effect on the general living standards of the population (Do Monte, 2017: 231). Also, with services such as healthcare and security, the wellbeing and safety of the general population are in the hands of the public servants, and this increases the reason and interest in understanding the distinctive nature of public sector human capital management.
The HRM is a key function that helps in delivering the service to the public effectively and economically. According to Brunetto and Beattie (2020: 1), the role of public HRM has significantly changed during the last two decades. This is because of the discretionary power gained from the skills and expert knowledge of HRM professionals in the public sector, creating a more diverse workplace. The result is a shift in the role played by HRM in the public sector (Brunetto and Beattie, 2020: 1). Public sector HRM focuses on developing the capacity, through people management, to achieve superior performance in line with public sector entities’ strategic direction.
This approach has been facilitated by a shift from hard HRM to soft HRM. According to Gile et al. (2018: 2), soft HRM is an employee-centred managerial approach where the focus is on the working environment, where training, development, tasks alignment, roles, motivation, communication, and delegation are all done with the employees' well-being in mind. As such, the focus is on the employees as the most important assets in the public sector. On the other hand, hard HRM is an approach that sees the employees as a category in the resources of organizations, and the focus is on ensuring their optimum capitalization (Gile et al., 2018: 2), The depersonalization of people management leads to the treatment of employees as any other asset.
3.0 Characteristics of Human Resources Management in Public Sector as Compared to Private Sector
It is important to consider the characteristics of HRM in the public sector for a critical evaluation against the private sector and the identification of the distinct elements. One trait of people management in the public sector is the none performance-related pay mechanism. Johnson (2020: 11) argues that the public service sector, led by state organs, does not tie compensation to performance. The author argues that public sector pay in the lower levels is low, but increases with the higher an executive climb in the public offices. This variation is contributed to the job grades besides the belief that the public sector employees' motivation is not driven by financial compensation, but is driven by the ability to service and contribute to the service to the nation (Johnson, 2020: 11).
People management is important in the public sector to foster the development of a work culture that not only benefits the organization but also the employees. Yet, Kotková Stříteská and Sein (2021: 1) argue that due to fear of change, HR in the public sector is characterized by inefficiencies and ineffectiveness. A result of such an approach is the quest to change the management and leadership style (Meriˇcková Mikušová et al., 2020: 1). Holistic development of the organization is important for people management to be effective. Through effective people management, an involuntary effort is made to maintain the development of the organization as a whole. Organizational development will necessitate research on specific areas that need to be improved and corrected.
Bullock, Stritch, as Rainey (2015: 480) contrast this view, believing that the overall pay in the public sector is low as compared to the private sector. Private sector employees have running incentives to motivate them to perform while the public sector has heavily relied on service salary scales, where pay is per the service level (Knies, 2017: 1). However, this is not to say that some public sector agencies are not adopting a performance-based compensation mechanism. As evidence provided by the Gov.UK (2020) shows, there are state agencies that provide their employees with varying performance-based pay in each financial year. This is not a global practice, and its assimilation is yet to be seen on a large scale. Park (2021: 1) adds that most of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries have implemented performance pay, though due to its ineffectiveness, it is rarely used as a way to compensate employees. This makes the public sector pay design distinct as compared to the private sector.
The second characteristic of public sector people management is a high level of unionization in state agencies. Unionization is the element of employees working in the same sector coming under a leadership group that negotiates with the government on their behalf for better working conditions, including collective bargaining agreements on compensation, working conditions, and other benefits (Paglayan, 2019: 22). To this end, given that different sector public employees cannot individually bargain on their terms with the government, the unions represent them. Such include teachers, medics, firefighters’ unions, postal service employee unions, and state employees’ unions.
More importantly, the contract negotiations of the public sector in nations globally depend on the budget size in each fiscal year (Paglayan, 2019: 21). Moreover, the unions engage in lengthy negotiations on behalf of the public servants to achieve better contracts for their members, besides assurance of job security, health, and safety at the workplace, among other critical element. According to the Department for Business, Innovation, and Skills (2020: 1), the UK reported 3.77 million union density in the public sector as compared to 2.67 million achieved in the private sector. This is a testament that the density of unions in the public sector is high, and there is a strong attachment to collective bargaining agreements. Elsewhere globally, statistics also show high unionization, with the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021) showing that the U.S. has a 34.8% unionization of its public sector employees as compared to 6.3% private sector. This proves that public sector agencies accept their employees to join unions, while employees seek services from unions to fight for better conditions
5.0 Conclusion
This discussion has critically analyzed the distinctiveness of the practice of HRM in the public sector, and what challenges this brings to the practice. As the analysis has shown, given the nature of public sector services, face to face human capital is a critical element in delivering such services. The public sector employees have the responsibility to the public, where their actions and decisions impact the general living standards of the population. As opposed to the private sector, public HRM is characterized by the hand of the state on approach to employee relations management, unionization, an ageing workforce that guarantees stability, NPM framework adoption and other policies, deprivation of state agencies in HRM discretion, and a value-based approach to HRM. Another critical characteristic is the encouragement of managers into becoming outstanding leaders, which is coupled by not tying compensation to performance.
Yet, challenges face the practice of public sector people management. These challenges include the severity in cost optimization that affects jobs, demographic shifts affecting demand for human capital, and complexity and increase in services to offer communities. Other challenges include policies focusing on effectiveness and efficiency, forgetting the human aspect of the roles in state organs and job-related stress and dissatisfaction can have a negative impact on the quality of service. As an HR practitioner, understanding these challenges helps in public sector people management, increasing the level of satisfaction due to the application of informed and proactive strategies. Thus, it important for policymakers and other human capital stakeholders in the public sector to consider these challenges and devise ways to mitigate or solve them.
References
Adams, J.M., 2019. The value of worker well-being. Public Health Reports, 134(6), pp.583-586.
Aghaz, A., Sheikh, A. and Amirkhani, T., 2017. Human Resource Management in the Public Sector: An Investigation into the Iranian Ministries. Iranian Journal of Management Studies, 10(3).
Arora, P. and Chong, A., 2018. Government effectiveness in the provision of public goods: the role of institutional quality. Journal of Applied Economics, 21(1), pp.175-196.
Ashraf, J., 2017. Examining the public sector recruitment and selection, in relation to job analysis in Pakistan. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), p.1309134.
Al-Sharif, R. & Searle, H. R. 2018. Recruitment and selection. In D. G. Collings, G. T. Wood, & L. T. Szamosi (Eds.), Human resource management: A critical approach (2nd ed., pp. 215-237). New York, NY: Routledge.
Alfes, K., Truss, C. and Gill, J., 2010. The HR manager as change agent: Evidence from the public sector. Journal of change management, 10(1), pp.109-127.
Bach, s., 2019. Human resource management in the public sector: New public management, responsive governance and the consequences of the economic crisis. Teoksessa: Adrian Wilkinson, Nick Bacon & S. Snell.
Bosch, A., 2015. Reasons for the gender pay gap–What HR practitioners should know. South African board for people pracfices women’s Report, pp.3-6.
Brunetto, Y. and Beattie, R., 2020. Changing role of HRM in the public sector. Public Management Review, 22(1), 1–5.
Bullock, J. B., Stritch, J. M., & Rainey, H. H. 2015. International comparison of public and private employees’ work motives, attitudes, and perceived rewards. Public Administration Review, 75(3), 479–489. doi:10.1111/puar.12356
Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2021. Union members summary. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm
Caponi, V., 2017. The effects of public sector employment on the economy. IZA World of Labor.
Ciobanu, A. and Androniceanu, A., 2018. Integrated human resources activities-the solution for performance improvement in romanian public sector institutions. Management Research & Practice, 10(3).
Colley, L., 2014. Understanding ageing public sector workforces: Demographic challenge or a consequence of public employment policy design? Public Management Review, 16(7), pp.1030-1052.
Department for Business, Innovation, and Skills. 2020. Trade union membership 2019. London: BIS.
Do Monte, P.A., 2017. Public versus private sector: Do workers behave differently? Economia, 18(2), pp.229-243.
Dupouët, O. and Barlatier, P.J., 2019. Environmental shifts and change strategies. Strategic Organization, 17(4), pp.405-424.
Elliott, I.C., 2020. Organisational learning and change in a public sector context. Teaching Public Administration, 38(3), pp.270-283.
Gile, P.P., Buljac-Samardzic, M. and Van De Klundert, J., 2018. The effect of human resource management on performance in hospitals in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review. Human Resources for Health, 16(1), pp.1-21.
Gov.UK. (2020). HMRC: Non-consolidated performance-related pay 2018 to 2019: Information on non-consolidated performance-related pay data for HMRC and its agencies. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hmrc-non-consolidated-performance-related-pay-2018-to-2019.
Johnson, D.S., 2020. Public versus private employees: A perspective on the characteristics and implications. FIIB Business Review, 9(1), pp.9-14.
Knies, E., Boselie, P., Gould-Williams, J. and Vandenabeele, W., 2017. Strategic human resource management and public sector performance: context matters.
Kotková Stříteská, M. and Sein, Y.Y., 2021. Performance Driven Culture in the Public Sector: The Case of Nordic Countries. Administrative Sciences, 11(1), p.4.
Kuoppakangas, P., Suomi, K., Stenvall, J., Pekkola, E., Kivistö, J. and Kallio, T., 2019. Revisiting the five problems of public sector organisations and reputation management—the perspective of higher education practitioners and ex-academics. International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 16(2), pp.147-171.
Lapuente, V. and Van de Walle, S., 2020. The effects of new public management on the quality of public services. Governance, 33(3), pp.461-475.
Ludviga, I., Senņikova, I. and Kalviņa, A., 2016. Turnover of public sector employees and the mediating role of job satisfaction: an empirical study in Latvia. In Society. Integration. Education. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference (Vol. 4, pp. 364-378).
Meriˇcková Mikušová, Beáta., Jana. Štrangfeldová, Nikoleta J. Muthová, and Nikola Štefanišinová. 2020. Performance Measurement in Education Public Services Based on the Value for Money Concept. Scientific Papers of the University of Pardubice, Series D: Faculty of Economics and Administration 28: 1099.
Mueller, R., 2019. The gender pay gap in the public sector: Evidence from the labour force survey. Available at SSRN 3477612.
Öberg, S.A. and Wockelberg, H., 2020. Agency control or autonomy? Government steering of Swedish government agencies 2003–2017. International Public Management Journal, pp.1-20.
OECD. 2021. The working-age population (indicator). doi: 10.1787/d339918b-en (Accessed on 15 April 2021)
Oliveira, L.B. and Costa, E.M.T.C.M.D., 2019. Comparing attitudes of public servants and outsourced employees. RAUSP Management Journal, 54(1), pp.38-53.
Paglayan, A.S., 2019. Public‐sector unions and the size of government. American Journal of Political Science, 63(1), pp.21-36.
Park, J., 2021. What makes performance-related pay effective in the public sector? Target, pay design, and context. Review of Public Personnel Administration, p.0734371X21990722.
Podger, A., 2017. Enduring challenges and new developments in public human resource management: Australia as an example of international experience. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 37(1), pp.108-128.
Sewpersad, R., Ruggunan, S., Adam, J.K. and Krishna, S.B.N., 2019. The impact of the psychological contract on academics. SAGE Open, 9(2), p.2158244019840122.
Steen, T. and Schott, C., 2019. Public sector employees in a challenging work environment. Public Administration, 97(1), pp.3-10.
Thompson, J.R., 2017. Value shifts in public sector human resource management: A congressional perspective. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 37(4), pp.375-404.
Truss, C., 2018. Continuity and change: the role of the HR function in the modern public sector. Public Administration, 86(4), pp.1071-1088.
Yang, F. and Gu, S., 2021. Industry 4.0, a revolution that requires technology and national strategies. Complex & Intelligent Systems, pp.1-15.
Veh, A., Göbel, M., & Vogel, R. 2018. Corporate reputation in management research: A review of the literature and assessment of the concept. Business Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40685-018-0080-4.